[MA149]Pages 146-174
(It may take a while to download but I think it is
worthy - John A. Keslick, Jr.) A word from the webmaster - Within
this article the word nutrient is misused at times where the true meaning is
essential elements. See my dictionary at
www.treedictionary.com and look up
nutrient as well as essential element. The reason for the latter is to
reduce misunderstanding of terms to better understand the message.
John A. Keslick, Jr.
VI. IMPROVING THE GAME
Figure 59. -Solar power and wind are two of the most promising sources of clean energy. We are just beginning to develop the techniques necessary to generate electricity with large windmills (center background) and to heat and cool buildings with solar energy (solar collector panels on and near buildings). The employment of solar power for many other uses is being explored in research programs around the world.
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ABIDING BY THE RULES
Energy
The conservation of energy offers the greatest
opportunity for playing the Game of the Environment well. But, to be
effective, conservation must involve each of us as individuals. It will be
necessary for every person to make a strong personal commitment to
conservation-a commitment that may require rethinking and perhaps reshaping of
our personal lifestyles. Where appropriate, emphasis must be on the
development of mass transit and the production of small cars; on the insulation
of existing buildings and the construction of new ones in ways that conserve
energy; and on the reorientation of agricultural and industrial processes that
use less energy.
Along with these energy conservation practices we must embark
on programs to develop alternate sources of clean energy. Recent reports
indicate that both wind and solar power (fig. 59) can produce much more of our
energy needs than had previously been suggested. While it is questionable
whether nuclear fusion will ever be a usable source of energy, only massive
research will disclose its feasibility.
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Figure 60. - While only conceptionalized in this illustration, strip mine reclamation (background hills) will be an integral step in the coal producing process. As our technologies improve, we may be able to actually make the sites more productive than they were originally.
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Our need for energy can only increase, even
if we eliminate all wasteful practices. And our need may outstrip any
progress we may make in developing alternative sources. Since strip
mining for coal will continue to increase, we must ensure through
reclamation practices (fig. 60) that the productivity of land is restored to as
high a level as possible. And since we will continue to drill for
oil and build pipelines in increasingly fragile Arenas, it is important that we
learn from the hard environmental lessons of the past bow to conduct these
activities.
The absence of visible stack emissions in the picture
illustrating the landscape of the future on page 144 indicates that the cities
of the future that survive will be those that have "cleaned up." Emissions from
industrial and power generating plants that burn fossil fuels will be reduced
sharply as better ways to remove particulates and noxious materials are
developed and as clean sources of energy, such as solar, wind, tidal, and
hydroelectric power, become relatively more abundant. In certain
circumstances, heated water from nuclear plants could be beneficial to
ecosystems. With wise planning, "thermal enrichment" could be used to
cultivate aquatic food species, to lengthen the existing seasons for fishing and
recreation, and to heat buildings, including greenhouses and domestic water
supplies. But these potential benefits must be weighed against the
potential hazards of locating nuclear plants near population centers. In
our future Arena, the quality of life will be an important component in the
energy equation.
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Figure 61.- Using forests and agricultural lands for final water treatment not only purifies the water but also recharges water supplies and cycles nutrients.
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Material Cycling
Solid waste disposal systems -landfills, dumps, incinerators -
also are conspicuously absent in the picture on page 144 . In our city of
the future (indeed, in some European cities today) waste disposal will at last
be coupled with reclamation. Nature's Rule that all essential materials
must cycle within the system will become a way of life, for no other reason than
necessity. There is simply no recourse but to change to a system where the
circular movement of materials essential for our needs will be patterned after
that of nature.
In our city of the future, it is likely that domestic and
industrial solid waste will be collected and transported to reclamation centers
and separated into combustibles and into metals and glass for recycling.
The combustibles may be burned to power the system-or perhaps they may be
degraded to produce methane (also used for power) and compost for
city gardens and parks. It is quite possible that the value of recovered
materials will offset the costs of collection and processing.
Sewage disposal systems will probably be linked directly
to natural eco- systems at least for tertiary phases of water
treatment. Studies have demonstrated the feasibility of using
forests and agricultural lands as recycling systems, where nutrients are
incorporated by the Producer Players before they can intrude into waterways
(fig. 61), and where water can be returned to recharge city aquifers. In
the future, the forest disposal systems will be cropped periodically to remove
"excess" nutrients and prevent the overloading of cycles.
The primary concern in recycling materials in the future is
the enormous energy that will be required to drive these cycles. The
closing of the last mines of precious metals and industrial minerals will signal
the end of our free ride. Just as great expenditures of energy were
required by nature to separate, concentrate, and store mineral reserves eons
ago, so, too, will we require great amounts of energy to repeatedly complete
each phase of the cycle. But when all costs (including those-of energy and
environment) are considered, recycling still uses less energy than is ,used
exploiting virgin materials; recycling also causes less air and water pollution
and generates less solid waste. Recycling is one of the basic ecological
Rules of the Game by which we must abide.
An abundant supply of energy will be critical if we are to
prevent cycles from running amuck. And this presents a paradox because
anticipated great increases in the use of coal and shale oil, the most likely
stopgap energy sources, will result in great intrusions and disruptions of the
sulfur, nitrogen, and carbon cycles-cycles that already are overloaded.
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CAREFUL MANIPULATION OF ECOSYSTEMS
The picture illustrating the manipulation of ecosystems on
page 106 shows many of our actions at their worst. From the time we have
had the ways and means to do so, we have ruined many of our ecosystems.
Ancient, advanced civilizations are no more; cities, cultural centers for
centuries, lie forgotten in ruins; and once fertile lands are now
deserts-primarily because we mistreated our agricultural Arenas.
Yet it must be reemphasized that these ecological disasters
are not in- evitable. There are many fine examples, especially in Europe,
where land farmed for thousands of years is still highly fertile and productive;
where exceedingly beautiful landscapes have been preserved because of the
interactions of people and nature over centuries. What we have often
thought of as "natural" and pleasing is often the result of playing within the
Rules of the Game of the Environment (fig. 62).
Figure 62. -Diversity of land-use patterns and preservation of prime agricultural lands - practices in accord with the Rules of the Game.
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This does not mean that we should not manipulate our
environment - that we should stand aside and allow ecological succession to
proceed unhindered. But it does suggest that we should heed the lesson
that successional processes demonstrate, namely, that nature abhors a biotic
vacuum. Following disturbance, the natural tendency is to reestablish
a viable, solar subsidized, self- perpetuating ecosystem. Among other
things, this lesson demonstrates two points: (1) Succession usually results in
ecological diversity and (2) energy is required to hold successional processes
in check.
In keeping with the first point, and as we discussed earlier,
a diverse crop system is usually a hedge against devastation by pests or
climate, and a landscape with diverse vegetational and land-use patterns can be
esthetically desirable. The second point suggests that we must realize and
accept the fact that great energy subsidies will be required to grow
low-diversity crops to hold back succession. (In nature, succession is
held in check by energy subsidies such as fire, insect defoliation, wind, and
flood.) As supplies of fossil fuel wane, it will be imperative that top
priority be given to using them for subsidizing ecosystems that produce food.
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Figure 63.-In the future, productive natural ecosystems such as this salt marsh and estuary will be protected as national assets.
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Of necessity, land-use policies must soon become alined with ecological
principles. It no longer will be possible for urban sprawl to gobble up
more than a million acres of prime agricultural land each year as it does now.
Several European countries have led the way in preserving their agricultural
land base; a number of our own States are considering legislation which would
empower them to purchase agricultural land outright or to purchase the
developmental rights. It is hoped that enlightened societies will enact
these necessary policies long before the energy crunch does it for them.
In our future Arena, the sea itself will no longer be
regarded as our infinite dumping ground. The global nature of the sea (as
with the air of the biosphere) will demand international approaches to the
monitoring and control of pollution, and to the exploration and the exploitation
of the sea's minerals, energy reserves, and fisheries.
Productive natural ecosystems will be highly prized for their
contributions to our well-being, and they will be protected against destruction.
The salt marsh and estuary "nurseries" of our natural fisheries will be
recognized and treated as national assets (fig. 63). Many states have
enacted legislation to protect their coastal wetlands from large-scale,
destructive activities.
Earthmanship will succeed only when the entire biosphere is
treated as a single unit, when all actions, no matter how small, are in accord
with the Rules of the Game. As the dominant Players of the Game of the
Environment, our ultimate challenge will be to change from a pioneer Grand
Exploiter to an enlightened and benevolent Steward of our environment. We
have always had the capacity to do so. We now have the necessary
motivation to do so-survival.
---- ---- ---- ----
IN YOUR ENVIRONMENTAL ARENA
List the ways in which your community could improve its Gamesmanship in
living within the Rules.
How would your lifestyle have to change?
What actions would be required to improve the Game? By whom?
In what ways would it be more costly to live in your improved community?
In what ways would it be less costly?
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The Forest Service has developed a package of materials to help you better understand environmental relationships. The package, Investigating Your Environment, contains lesson plans and an approach for studying water, soil, animals, forest; and people-produced communities. You may obtain a copy by writing to: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Office of Information, Environmental Education, Room 3235, P.O. Box 2417, Washington, D.C. 20013.
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GLOSSARY OF ENVIRONMENTAL TERMS
A.
ABIOTIC: Nonliving.
ABSORPTION: The process of taking inorganic salts, in solution, into root
hairs from soil water by osmosis. In pollution control, absorption is the
dissolving of a soluble gas, present in an emission, in a liquid, from which it
can be extracted.
ABYSSAL ZONE: The area of the bottom waters of the ocean
depths.
ACCLIMATION: The physiological and behavioral adjustments of an organism to
changes in its immediate environment.
ACID PRECIPITATION: Snow or rain with a pH value of less than 5.6.
ACTINOMYCETES: Small filamentous forms of bacteria that have some of the
morphological characteristics of fungi. These organisms are important decomposers.
ADAPTION: A change in the structure or habit of an organism that enables it
to better adjust to the environment.
ADVANCED WASTE TREATMENT: Waste water treatment beyond the secondary or biological stage that includes removal of nutrients such as
phosphorus and nitrogen, and a high percentage of suspended solids.
Advanced waste treatment, known as tertiary treatment, is the "polishing" stage of
waste water treatment; it produces a high-quality effluent.
AEROBIC: Refers to life or processes that can occur only in the presence of
oxygen.
AEROSOL: A suspension of liquid or solid particles in the air.
AGRICULTURAL POLLUTION: The liquid and solid wastes from all types of
farming, including runoff from animal waste disposal areas and the land used for livestock and crop production; erosion and dust from plowing;
animal manure and carcasses; and crop residues and debris.
AIR MONITORING: See
monitoring.
AIR POLLUTION: The presence of contaminants in the air in concentrations that
prevent the normal dispersion of substances by the air, and that interfere
directly or indirectly with our health, safety, or comfort.
AIR POLLUTION EPISODE: Abnormally high concentrations of air pollutants,
usually due to low winds and temperature inversion, and accompanied by an
increase in illness and death. See inversion.
AIR QUALITY CRITERIA: The levels of pollution and lengths of exposure at
which adverse effects on health and welfare occur.
AIR QUALITY STANDARDS: As prescribed by law, the level of pollutants in
the outside air that cannot be exceeded during a specified time in a specified
geographical area.
ALGA (Algae): Simple, one- to many-celled plants capable of carrying on
photosynthesis.
AMBIENT AIR: Any unconfined portion of the atmosphere; the outside air.
ANAEROBIC: Refers to life or processes that occur in the absence of oxygen.
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AQUACULTURE: The growing ("farming") of plants or animals in or under the
seas, lakes, ponds, rivers, or other water bodies.
AQUATIC PLANTS: Plants that grow in water; includes those that float on the
surface, grow up from the bottom of the body of water, or grow under the surface
of the water.
AQUIFER: An underground bed or stratum of earth, gravel, or porous stone that
contains water.
ASSIMILATION: Conversion or incorporation of absorbed nutrients into
protoplasm. Also refers to the ability of a body of water to purify itself of organic
pollution.
ATMOSPHERE: The gaseous envelope of air that surrounds the earth and is held
to it by the force of gravity.
ATTRITION: Wearing or grinding down by friction. One of the three basic
processes that contribute to air pollution; the others are vaporization and
combustion.
AUTOTROPHIC ORGANISMS (Autotrophs): Self-nourishing: denotes those organisms
capable of constructing organic matter from inorganic substances. See Producers.
B.
BACTERIA: Single-celled microorganisms that lack chlorophyll. Some bacteria
are capable of causing human, animal, or plant diseases; others are essential
because they break down organic matter in the air and in the water. With fungi,
they comprise the decomposer level of food chains.
BATHYAL ZONE: The open water zone in an ocean below the level where light
penetrates.
BENTHIC REGION: The bottom of a body of water. This region supports the
benthos, a type of life that not only lives upon but also contributes to the character of the bottom.
BENTHOS: The plant and animal life whose habitat is the bottom of a sea,
lake, or river.
BIOCHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND (BOD): A measure of the amount
of oxygen consumed
in the biological processes that break down organic matter in water. Large
amounts of organic waste use up large amounts of dissolved oxygen; thus the
greater the degree of pollution, the greater the BOD.
BIODEGRADABLE: The process of decomposing as a result of the action of
microorganisms.
BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES: The mechanisms by which essential and non- essential
materials move through the biosphere to be used over and over again.
BIOLOGICAL
CONTROL: A method of controlling pests by introduced or naturally occurring
predatory organisms, sterilization, or the use of inhibiting hormones rather
than by mechanical or chemical means.
BIOLOGICAL MAGNIFICATION: Buildup in the concentration of substances in
successively higher levels of the food chain.
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BIOLOGICAL OXIDATION: The process by which bacteria and other microorganisms feed on complex organic materials and decompose them. Self-purification
of waterways and activated sludge and trickling-filter waste water treatment processes depend on this principle. This process is also called
biochemical oxidation.
BIOMASS: The total weight (mass) of all living matter in a particular
habitat or area.
BIOME: The complex of communities maintained by the climate of the region and characterized by a distinctive type of vegetation. The biomes of North
America include the tundra, the desert, the eastern deciduous forest, the
prairie, the northern boreal forest, and the western coniferous forests.
BIOSPHERE: The portion of the earth and its atmosphere capable of supporting life.
BIOTA: All species of plants and animals that occur within a certain area.
BIOTIC: Living.
BLOOM: A proliferation of living algae or other aquatic plants on the surface
of lakes or ponds. Blooms are frequently stimulated by phosphate enrichment. BOD: See biochemical
oxygen demand.
BOG: A wetland that is formed in a former glacial lake by the accumulation
of' organic matter. Peat often accumulates to a depth of 40 feet.
BREEDER: A nuclear reactor that produces, from nonfissionable uranium-238, at
least as much fissionable material (such as plutonium-239 or thorium) as is
needed for the chain reaction, and usually more.
C.
CALORIE (GRAM CALORIE): The amount of energy required to raise the temperature of 1 gram (g) of water 1
�C.Page 159
CHLORINATED HYDROCARBONS: A class of generally long-lasting, broad-
spectrum insecticides of which the best known is DDT, first used for insect control
during World War II. Similar compounds include aldrin, dieldrin, heptachlor,
chlordane, lindane, endrin, mirex, benzene hexachloride (BHC), and toxaphene. The qualities of persistence and effectiveness against a variety of insect pests were long regarded as highly desirable in agriculture, public health, and
home uses. But research has revealed that these same qualities may represent a potential hazard by accumulating in the food chain and persisting in the
environment.
CHRONIC: Marked by long duration or frequent recurrence, as a
disease.
CLEARCUTTING: Removing an entire stand of timber from a forest area.
CLIMAX COMMUNITY: A relatively stable community that appears to perpetuate
itself in the absence of disturbance.
COASTAL ZONE: Coastal waters and adjacent lands that exert a measurable
influence on the uses of the sea and its ecology.
COLIFORM INDEX: An index of the purity of water based on a count of its coliform bacteria.
COLIFORM ORGANISM: Any of a number of organisms common to the intestinal
tract of humans and animals, and whose presence in waste water is an indicator
of pollution and of potentially dangerous contamination.
COMBUSTION: Burning. Technically, a rapid oxidation accompanied by the release of energy in the form of heat and light. It is one of the three basic
factors that contribute to air pollution; the others are attrition and
vaporization.
COMMUNITY: The group of populations occupying a particular habitat
or area.
COMPOST: Relatively stable decomposed organic material.
COMPOSTING: A controlled process of degrading organic matter by microorganisms. (1) Mechanical: a method in which the compost is continually and
mechanically mixed and aerated. (2) Ventilated cell: compost is mixed and
aerated by being dropped through a vertical series of ventilated cells. (3)
Windrow: an open-air method in which compostable material is placed in windrows,
piles, or ventilated bins or pits and is occasionally turned or mixed. The
process may be aerobic or anaerobic.
CONDENSATION: The process whereby water is changed from a gas (water vapor)
to a liquid.
CONSUMERS: Organisms that live off others. Usually they are classified as primary consumers (herbivores), secondary consumers (carnivores), and microconsumers (decomposers).
COOLING TOWER: A device that removes excess heat from water used in
industrial operations, usually in electric power generation.
CULTURAL EUTROPHICATION: Acceleration by human action of the natural aging
process of bodies of water.
CYCLING: See Biogeochemical Cycling.
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D.
DDT: The first of the modern chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides whose chemical name is 1, 1,
1-trichloro-2, 2-bis (p-chloriphenyl)-ethane. It has
a half- life of 15 years, and its residues can become concentrated in the fatty
tissues of certain organisms, especially fish. Because of its persistence in the
environment and its ability to accumulate and magnify in the food chain, EPA banned the
registration and interstate sale of DDT for nearly all uses in the United
States, effective December 31, 1972.
DECOMPOSERS: Bacteria and fungi that chemically degrade (rot or decay)
organic matter.
DECOMPOSITION: Reduction of the net energy level and
change in chemical composition of organic matter due to the actions of aerobic
or anaerobic microorganisms.
DEFOLIATION: Removal of leaves from plants.
DESALINIZATION: Removal of salt from seawater or brackish water.
DETERGENT: Synthetic washing agent that, like soap, lowers the surface
tension of water, emulsifies oils, and holds dirt in suspension. Environmentalists
have criticized the use of detergents because most have large amounts of phosphorus-containing compounds that contribute to the eutrophication of
waterways.
DETRITUS: The particulate organic matter included in the
decomposition of dead material.
DETRITUS FOOD CHAIN: The transfer of energy from one food (trophic) level to
another by decomposers.
DIATOMS: Any of numerous microscopic, unicellular aquatic algae that have
hard shells composed mostly of silica.
DIGESTION: The biochemical decomposition of organic matter. The digestion of
sewage sludge takes place in tanks where the sludge decomposes; this results in
partial gasification, liquefaction, and mineralization of pollutants.
DILUTION RATIO: The ratio of the volume of water of a stream to the volume of
incoming waste. The capacity of a stream to assimilate waste is partially dependent upon the dilution ratio.
DISINFECTION: Effective killing by chemical or physical processes of all
organisms capable of causing infectious disease. Chlorination is the disinfection
method commonly used in sewage treatment.
DISSOLVED OXYGEN (DO): The oxygen dissolved in water or sewage. Adequately
dissolved oxygen is necessary for the survival of fish and other aquatic
organisms and for the prevention of offensive odors. Low concentrations of dissolved oxygen generally are caused by the discharge of excess organic solids
that have high BOD-the result of inadequate waste treatment.
DIVERSITY OF ORGANISMS: Biological complexity (the number of species) of an
ecosystem. In many instances, the ecosystem becomes more stable as diversity
increases.
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DREDGING: A method for deepening streams, swamps, or coastal waters by
scraping and removing solids from the bottom. The resulting mud is usually deposited in marshes in a process called filling. Dredging and filling can disturb
natural ecological cycles. For example, dredging can destroy oyster beds and
other aquatic life; filling can destroy the feeding and breeding grounds for
many fish species.
DUMP: A land site where solid waste is disposed of in a manner that usually
does not protect the environment.
DUST: Fine-grain particulate matter that is capable of being suspended in the
air.
DYSTROPHIC LAKES: Lakes between eutrophic and swamp stages of aging. Such
lakes are shallow and have high humus content, high organic matter content, low
nutrient availability, and high BOD.
E.
ECOLOGICAL IMPACT: The total effect of an environmental change, either
natural or human-caused, on the ecology of the area.
ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION: The changes, over time, in the structure and function
of an ecosystem. Primary succession occurs on sites where no previous vegetation
existed (bare sand); secondary succession occurs on sites that supported
vegetation previously (abandoned fields).
ECOLOGY: The interrelationships of living things to one another and to their
environment, or the study of these interrelationships.
ECOSYSTEM: The interacting system of a biological community and its non-
living environment; also, the place where these interactions occur.
EFFLUENT: A discharge of pollutants into the environment, partially or
completely treated or in their natural state; usually refers to discharges into
water.
EMISSION: Usually refers to discharges in air. See effluent.
EMISSION STANDARD: The maximum legal amount of a pollutant that can be
discharged from a single mobile or stationary source.
ENERGY: The capacity to do
work.
ENERGY FLOW: The one-way passage (transfer) of energy through an ecosystem.
ENERGY PYRAMID: Passage of energy from one trophic level to another. Because much energy is lost as heat (80 to 90 percent) in each transfer, the shape
of the energy pyramid is always "right side up."
ENRICHMENT: The addition of nitrogen, phosphorus, and carbon compounds or
other nutrients into a lake or other waterway that greatly increases the growth
potential for-algae and other aquatic plants. Most frequently, enrichment
results from the inflow. of sewage effluent or from runoff from farmlands.
ENVIRONMENT: The sum of all external conditions and influences that affect the
development and, ultimately, the survival of an organism.
EPILIMNION: The warm, less dense top layer in a stratified lake.
EROSION: The wearing away of the land surface by wind or water. Erosion
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occurs naturally from weather or runoff, but it is often intensified by our
land- clearing practices.
ESTUARY: An area where freshwater meets saltwater; for example, a bay, mouth
of a river, salt marsh, or lagoon. Estuaries are delicate ecosystems; they serve
as nursery, spawning, and feeding grounds for a large group of marine life, and
they provide shelter and food for birds and wildlife.
EUTROPHICATION: The normally slow aging process by which a lake evolves into
a bog or marsh and ultimately assumes a completely terrestrial state and
disappears. During eutrophication, the lake becomes so rich in nutritive compounds-especially phosphorus-that algae and other microscopic plant life
become superabundant, thereby "choking" the lake and causing it to dry up. Eutrophication may be accelerated by many human activities.
EUTROPHIC LAKE: A shallow lake that is choked by weeds at the edge and very
rich in nutrients. The water is characterized by large amounts of algae, low
water transparency, low dissolved oxygen, and high BOD.
EUTROPHIC ZONE: The surface layer of water bodies where light penetrates;
the zone where photosynthesis occurs.
EVAPORATION: The process whereby water is changed from a liquid to a gaseous
state (water vapor).
F.
FALLOUT: The radioactive particles or dust that fall to the earth after an
atomic explosion. Fallout may be assumed always to be
dangerously radioactive.
FEEDLOT: A confined space where large numbers of livestock are fattened for
slaughter. Although an economical method of fattening beef, a feedlot concentrates a large amount of animal wastes in a small area. Excrement cannot be
handled by the soil on a feedlot as it can on an open range where cattle are
scattered. Runoff from feedlots also contributes excessive quantities of
nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium to nearby waterways, thus contributing to
eutrophication.
FILLING: The process of depositing dirt and mud in marshy areas, often to
create more land for real estate development. Filling can disturb natural ecological cycles. See Dredging.
FILTRATION: In waste water treatment, the mechanical process that removes
particulate matter by separating water from solid material, usually by passing
it through sand.
FINITE RESOURCES (Nonrenewable): Resources such as minerals and fossil
fuels that exist as fixed, depletable supplies.
FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS: The law that states that while energy can be
transformed from one type to another, it can neither be created nor destroyed.
FISSION: The process by which neutrons and energy are released when the
nucleus of a heavy element (uranium-235, plutonium-239) splits into nuclei
(usually two) of lighter elements.
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FIXATION: The process of making stable by decreasing or destroying
volatility, fluidity, etc.
FLOOD PLAIN: A lowland fringing a watercourse. It serves a valuable function
by containing large volumes of water in times of flood. Development on flood
plains, therefore, is considered unwise.
FOOD CHAIN: The transfer of food energy from organisms in one trophic level
to those in another. There are two pathways or "circuits": the grazing food
chain and the detritus food chain.
FOOD WEB: The complex and interlocking series of food chains.
FOREST: A large
area of land covered with trees.
FOSSIL FUELS: Coal, oil, and natural gas; called fossil fuels because they
are derived from the remains of ancient plant and animal life.
FUNGI: Small, often microscopic plants without chlorophyll. Some fungi infect
and cause disease in plants or animals; other fungi are useful in stabilizing
sewage or in breaking down wastes for compost.
FUNGICIDE: A pesticide chemical that kills fungi or prevents them from causing diseases, usually on plants of economic importance. See Pesticide.
FUSION: The process by which energy is released when nuclei of light elements
combine to form the nucleus of a heavier element.
G.
GAME FISH: Those species of fish sought by sports fishermen; for example,
salmon, trout, black bass, and striped bass. Game fish are usually more
sensitive to environmental changes and the degradation of water quality than
"rough fish."
GASEOUS CYCLE: Biogeochemical cycles in which the primary
reservoir is the atmosphere.
GASIFICATION: The processing of coal to produce synthetic natural gas (SNG).
GENERATOR: A device that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
GEOTHERMAL ENERGY: Energy derived from the heat of the earth's interior.
GRAZING
FOOD CHAIN: Transfer of food energy from plants to animals, excluding the
actions of decomposers.
GREEN BELT: An area where building is restricted; it often serves as a buffer
between sources of pollution and concentrations of population.
GREENHOUSE EFFECT: The heating effect of the atmosphere upon the earth. Light
waves from the sun pass through the air and are absorbed by the earth. The earth
then reradiated this energy as heat waves that are absorbed by the air, specifically by carbon dioxide.
The air thus behaves like glass in a greenhouse, allowing the passage of light but not heat. Many scientists believe that an
increase in the atmospheric concentration of CO
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GROUNDWATER RUNOFF: Groundwater that is discharged into a stream channel as spring or seepage water.
H.
HABITAT: The sum of environmental conditions of a specific place that is occupied by an organism, a population, or a community.
HALF-LIFE: The time it takes certain materials such as persistent pesticides
or radioactive isotopes to lose half their strength. For example, the half-life
of DDT is 15 years; the half-life of radium is 1,580 years.
HAZARDOUS AIR POLLUTANT: According to law, a pollutant to which no ambient air
quality standard is applicable, and that may cause or contribute
to an increase in death or in serious illness. Asbestos, beryllium, and mercury
have been declared hazardous air pollutants.
HEAT ISLAND EFFECT: An adverse atmospheric condition that is peculiar to
cities. Tall buildings, heat from pavements, and concentrations of pollutants create a "dome" of haze that prevents rising hot air from being cooled at its
normal rate. A self-contained circulation system is put into motion that can be
broken by relatively strong winds. If such winds are absent, the heat island can
trap high concentrations of pollutants and cause a serious health hazard.
HEAVY METALS: Metallic elements with high molecular weights; in low concentrations, generally toxic to plant and animal life. Such metals are often
residual in the environment, and they are biologically accumulative. Examples
include mercury, chromium, cadmium, arsenic, and lead.
HERBICIDE: A pesticide chemical used to destroy or control the growth of
weeds, brush, and other undesirable plants. See Pesticide.
HERBIVORE: An
organism that feeds on vegetation.
HETEROTROPHIC ORGANISM (Heterotrophs): Organism that depends on organic
matter for food. Includes all animals and some plants.
HUMUS: Decomposed material that is a highly complex mixture of organic and
inorganic substances.
HYDROCARBONS: A vast family of compounds containing carbon and hydrogen,
found especially in fossil fuels. Some hydrocarbons are major air pollutants,
some may be carcinogenic, others contribute to photochemical smog.
HYDROELECTRIC POWER: Electricity generated by turbines that operate by water flow.
HYDROGEN SULFIDE (H
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I.
INCINERATION: A controlled process by which solid, liquid, or gaseous
combustible wastes are burned and changed into gases; the residue contains little
or no combustible material.
INFILTRATION: The flow of a fluid into a substance through pores or small
openings; commonly used in hydrology to denote the flow of water into soil
material.
INFRARED: The part of the invisible spectrum whose wavelengths are longer
than those of the red part of the visible spectrum. Most of the heat from
sunlight is from infrared rays.
INGESTION: The act of taking food and water, etc., into the body for
digestion.
INTEGRATED PEST CONTROL: A system of managing pests by biological,
cultural, and chemical means.
INTERTIDAL ZONE: The zone along the shore between high and low tides
(littoral zone).
INVERSION: An atmospheric condition where a layer of cool air is trapped by
an upper layer of warm air. Inversions spread polluted air horizontally rather
than vertically so that contaminating substances cannot be widely dispersed. An
inversion of several days can cause an air pollution "episode."
ISOTOPE: A variation of an element having the same atomic number as the
element itself, but having a different atomic weight because of a different
number of neutrons. Different isotopes of the same element have different
radioactive behavior.
K.-L.
KILOCALORIE: Unit of energy equal to 1,000 calories.
LAGOON: In waste water treatment, a shallow pond, usually not natural, where
sunlight, bacterial action, and oxygen interact to restore waste water to a
reasonable state of purity.
LAKE: A large body of water entirely or nearly surrounded by land.
Lakes differ from ponds chiefly in size, but this carries with it profound changes in all
the principal factors of environment -light, temperature, and dissolved gases-
with their effects upon nutrition.
LANDFILL: A place where solid waste is dumped. See Sanitary Landfilling.
LEACHING: The process by which soluble materials in soil such as nutrients,
pesticide chemicals, and contaminants are washed into a lower layer of soil, or
are dissolved and carried away by water.
LEAD: A heavy metal that may be hazardous to health if breathed or ingested.
LIFE CYCLE: The phases, changes, or stages through which an organism passes
during its lifetime.
LIGNIN: The organic substance that holds together the individual fibers of
wood.
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LIMITING FACTOR: Factors such as temperature, light, water, and nutrients
that limit the ability of an organism to grow and survive.
LIMNITIC ZONE: In lakes, the open-water region that supports plankton and
fish as the principal Producers and Consumers.
LIMNOLOGY: The study of the physical, chemical, meteorological, and biological aspects of fresh water.
LITTORAL ZONE: The area on or near the shore of a water body. In the ocean,
this area is called the intertidal zone.
M.
MACROCONSUMERS: Organisms, chiefly animals, which ingest other organisms or
particulate organic matter.
MACRONUTRIENTS: Chemicals required by organisms in relatively large
quantities. Carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen are examples.
MARSH: A low-lying tract of soft wetland that provides an important ecosystem for a variety of plant and animal life, but that often is destroyed by
dredging and filling. Trees and shrubs are absent.
MEGALOPOLIS: A large continuous urban belt formed by a number of cities that
adjoin each other.
MERCURY: A heavy metal, highly toxic if breathed or ingested. Mercury is residual in the environment, and it accumulates in aquatic organisms,
especially fish and shellfish. Chronic exposure to airborne mercury can
seriously affect the central nervous system.
METHANE: Colorless, nonpoisonous, and flammable gaseous hydrocarbon. Methane
(CH
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N.
NATURAL GAS: A fuel gas that occurs naturally in certain geologic formations, Natural gas is usually a combustible mixture of methane and hydrocarbons.
NATURAL
SELECTION: The process by which the organisms best adapted to their
environment survive and those less well adapted are eliminated.
NICHE: The ecological role played by organisms. Also refers to specific
places where individual organisms can live (spatial niche).
NITRIC OXIDE (NO): A gas formed in great part from atmospheric nitrogen and
oxygen when combustion takes place under high temperature and high pressure, as
in internal combustion engines. NO itself is not a pollutant; however, in
the ambient air, it converts to nitrogen dioxide, a major contributor to
photochemical smog.
NITROGEN DIOXIDE (NO
[Note from web master. Please see essential elements and nutrients at www.treedictionary.com for some additional thoughts on the topic. John A. Keslick, Jr.]
O.
OIL SHALE: Fine-grain shale rock impregnated with natural hydrocarbons.
OIL
SPILL: The discharge of oil into oceans, bays, or inland waterways.
Methods of controlling oil spills include chemical-dispersion, combustion,
mechanical containment, and absorption.
OLIGOTROPHIC LAKE: A deep lake that has a low supply of nutrients and thus contains little organic matter. Such lakes are characterized by high water
transparency and high dissolved oxygen.
OMNIVORES: Organisms that eat animals and plants.
ORGANIC: Referring to or derived from living organisms. In chemistry, any
compound containing carbon.
ORGANISM: Any living human, plant, or animal.
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ORGANOPHOSPHATES: A group of pesticide chemicals, containing phosphorus, that are used to control insects. These compounds are short-lived
and, therefore, do not usually contaminate the environment. However, organophosphates such as parathion are extremely toxic when initially applied and
exposure to them can interfere with the normal processes of the nervous system,
causing convulsions and eventually death. Other organophosphates such as malathion are low in toxicity and relatively safe for humans and animals;
malathion is a common ingredient in household insecticides.
OUTFALL: The mouth of a sewer, drain, or conduit where effluent is discharged
into a body of water.
OXIDANT: Any oxygen-containing substance that reacts chemically in the air to produce new substances. Oxidants are primary components of photochemical
smog.
OXIDATION: The combining of oxygen with another element to form one or more
new substances. Burning is one kind of oxidation. Organic matter is oxidized by
the action of aerobic bacteria.
OXIDATION POND: A constructed lake or pond in which organic wastes are
reduced by bacterial action. Oxygen often is injected into the pond to speed the
process.
OZONE (O
P.
PAN: Peroxyacetyl nitrate, a pollutant created by the action of sunlight on hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides in the air. PAN's are an integral part of
photo- chemical smog.
PARTICULATE: Finely divided solid or liquid particle in the air or in an
emission. Particulates include dust, smoke, fumes, mist, spray, and fog.
PATHOGEN: Any organism that incites disease. PATHOGENIC: Inciting or capable of inciting disease.
PCB's: Polychlorinated biphenyls, a group of organic compounds used in the
manufacture of plastics. In the environment, PCB's have many of the same characteristics as DDT and, therefore, may be confused with that pesticide. PCB's are highly toxic to aquatic life, they persist in the environment for long
periods of time, and they are biologically accumulative.
PERCOLATION: Downward flow or infiltration of water through the pores or
spaces of rock or soil.
PEST: Harmful or noxious insects, microorganisms, weeds, or animals.
PESTICIDE: An agent used to control pests. This can be an insecticide for use
against harmful insects; a herbicide for weed control; a fungicide for control
of plant diseases; a rodenticide for killing rats and mice; a germicide used in
disinfectants; an algaecide, or a slimicide. Some pesticides can contaminate
water, air,
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or soil, and can accumulate in humans, animals, and the environment if
misused. Some of these chemicals also interfere with the reproductive processes
of predatory birds and possibly other animals.
pH: A measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a material, liquid, or solid. pH is represented on a scale of 0 to 14; 7 represents a neutral state; 0
represents the most acid., and 14, the most alkaline.
PHENOLS: A group of organic compounds that in very low concentrations produce
a foul taste or odor in water. In higher concentrations, they are toxic to
aquatic life. Phenols are by products of petroleum refining; tanning; and
textile, dye, and resin manufacturing processes.
PHOSPHORUS: An element that; while essential to life contributes to the
eutrophication of lakes and other bodies of water.
PHOTOCHEMICAL OXIDANTS: Secondary pollutants formed by the action of sunlight
on the oxides of nitrogen and hydrocarbons in the air; they are the primary
contributors to photochemical smog.
PHOTOCHEMICAL SMOG: Air pollution associated with oxidants rather than with sulfur oxides or particulates; smog causes necrosis,. chlorosis, and growth
alteration in plants, and is an eye and respiratory irritant in humans.
PHOTOSYNTHESIS: The process by which chlorophyll-bearing (green) plants combine
carbon dioxide and water in the presence of light energy to form sugars; it is
the conversion of light energy to potential chemical energy of food. Oxygen is released in the process.
PHYSIOGRAPHY: Physical geography.
PHYTOPLANKTON: The plant portion of plankton.
PLANKTON: The often microscopic floating or weakly swimming plant and animal
life in a body of water.
POLLUTANT: Any introduced gas, liquid, or solid that makes a resource unfit
for a specific purpose.
POLLUTION: The presence of matter or energy whose nature, location, or
quantity produces undesirable environmental effects.
POND: A body of still water
smaller than a lake.
POTABLE WATER: Water suitable for drinking or cooking.
PRECIPITATION:
Water from the atmosphere that falls to the ground as rain, snow, sleet, or hail.
PREDATOR: Organisms that live by preying on other organisms. Predators
are at or near the tops of food chains.
PREY: Organisms that serve as food for predators.
PRIMARY TREATMENT: The first stage in waste water treatment in which nearly
all floating or settleable solids are mechanically removed by screening and
sedimentation.
PRODUCERS: Green plants that synthesize their own Organic Compounds from
Inorganic Substances. See Autotrophs.
PROTOPLASM: The complex
living matter of organisms.
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R.
RADIATION: The emission of fast atomic particles or rays by. the nucleus of
an atom. Some elements are naturally radioactive; others become radioactive
after bombardment with neutrons or other particles. The three major forms of radiation are alpha, beta, and gamma.
RADIOECOLOGY: The study of the effects of radiation on plants and animals in
natural communities.
RADIOISOTOPE: . Radioactive
isotope whose nuclei emit radiation spontaneously. Radioisotopes such as cobalt-60 are used in the treatment of disease:
RADIONUCLIDE: A radioactive nuclide.
RECYCLING: The process by which waste materials are transformed into new
products in such a way that the original products may lose their identity.
RED TIDE: Seawater colored red or orange by a proliferation or bloom of a certain type of plankton; this bloom often causes massive, fish kills. Though
natural phenomena, blooms are believed to be stimulated by phosphorus and other nutrients discharged into waterways by humans.
REFUSE RECLAMATION: The
process of converting solid waste into commercial products. For example, the
composting of organic solid waste yields a salable soil conditioner.
RESOURCE RECOVERY: The process of obtaining materials or energy,
particularly from solid waste.
RESPIRATION: Aerobic oxidation of food or organic substances by organisms. Respiration releases usable energy, carbon dioxide, and water.
RIVER BASIN: The total area drained by a river and its tributaries.
RUNOFF: The portion of rainfall, melted snow, or irrigation water that flows
. across the ground (overland flow) and eventually is returned to streams.
Runoff can pick up pollutants from the air or on the land and carry them to bodies of water.
S.
SALINITY: The degree of salt in water.
SANITARY LAND FILLING: A method of solid waste disposal
on land that protects the environment; waste is spread in thin layers, compacted
to the smallest practical volume, and covered with soil.
SAPROTROPHIC ORGANISMS (Saprotrophs): Organisms that obtain food by absorbing the products of decomposition; they
live off dead organisms.
SCRUBBER: An air pollution control device that uses a liquid spray to remove
pollutants from a gas stream, as for example in a smoke stack, by absorption or chemical reaction. Scrubbers also lower the temperature of the emission.
SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS: The law that states that energy is degraded to less useful forms (heat) as it flows through an ecosystem.
SECONDARY TREATMENT: Waste water treatment beyond the primary stage in which
bacteria consume the organic parts of the wastes. This biochemical
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action uses trickling filters or activated sludge. Effective secondary
treatment removes virtually all floating and settleable solids, and about 90
percent of both BODs and suspended solids. Disinfection by chlorination usually
is the final stage of the secondary process.
SEDIMENT: Soil particles (sand, silt, clay, and minerals) washed from land
into water systems as a consequence of natural or human activities.
SEDIMENTATION: In waste water treatment, the settling out of solids by gravity.
SEEPAGE: Water that flows through the soil.
SELECTIVE HERBICIDE: A pesticide for killing only certain types of plants,
especially broad-leafed weeds, but not other plants such as farm crops or lawn
grasses.
SILT: Very fine particles of earth, sand, clay, etc. Often silt is carried by
moving water and deposited as a sediment. SILTATION: The formation or deposition of silt.
SMELTING: The process of melting ore to extract metals or impure metal to
refine it. |
SNG: See Synthetic natural gas.
SOLAR RADIATION: The radiant energy of the sun.
SOLID WASTE: Useless, unwanted, or discarded material with insufficient
liquid content to be free flowing. (1) Agricultural: solid waste from
raising and slaughtering animals and processing animal products, and orchard and
field crops. (2) Commercial: waste from stores, offices, and other
activities that do not actually turn out a product. (3) Industrial: waste
from industrial processes and manufacturing. (4) Institutional: waste
from institutions such as educational, health care, and research facilities. (5)
Municipal: residential and commercial solid waste generated within a
community. (6) Pesticide: residue from the manufacturing, handling, and
use of chemicals designed to kill plant and animal pests. (7) Residential:
waste that usually originates in a residential environment; sometimes called
domestic solid waste. See Waste.
SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL: The ultimate disposition of refuse that cannot be
salvaged or recycled.
SPOIL: Dirt or rock that has been removed from its original location; specifically, materials that have been dredged from the bottom of waterways.
STABILITY:
The ability of an ecosystem (the landscape, numbers of species, populations) to
tolerate changes in the environment.
STABLE AIR: An air mass that remains in the same position rather than moving
horizontally or vertically. Stable air does not disperse pollutants, and it
can lead to high concentrations of air pollutants.
STAGNATION: Lack of wind in an air mass or lack of motion in water; both
tend to trap and concentrate pollutants.
STRATIFICATION: Separation into layers.
STRIP MINING: The process by which rock and topsoil strata overlying ore or
fuel deposits are scraped away by mechanical equipment; also known as surface
mining.
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SUCCESSION: See Ecological Succession.
SULFUR DIOXIDE (SO
T.
TERRESTRIAL: Of the land, not the water.
TERTIARY TREATMENT: Waste water treatment beyond the secondary or biological
stage; includes the removal of nutrients such as phosphorus and nitrogen, and a high percentage of suspended solids. Tertiary treatment, also
known as advanced waste treatment, produces a high-quality effluent.
THERMAL
INVERSION: See Inversion.
THERMAL POLLUTION: Degradation of water quality by the introduction of
heated effluent; it is primarily the result of the discharge of cooling waters
from industrial processes, particularly from electrical power generation.
Even small deviations from normal water temperatures can affect aquatic life.
Thermal pollution usually can be controlled by cooling towers.
THRESHOLD DOSE: The minimum dose of a substance that is necessary to produce
a measurable physiological or psychological effect.
TOLERANCE: The relative capacity of an organism to endure an unfavorable
environmental factor; the amount of a chemical on any food considered safe for
consumption by humans or other animals.
TOXICANT: A substance that kills or injures an organism or that alters its
environment through a chemical or physical action. Examples are cyanides, phenols, pesticides, and heavy metals. Toxicants are used especially for
insect control.
TOXICITY: The quality of or degree to which a substance is poisonous or
harmful to plant or animal life.
TRANSPIRATION: Evaporation of water from the leaves of plants.
TROPHIC LEVEL (Food level): The level at which food energy is transferred
from one organism to another.
TROPOSPHERE: The layer of the atmosphere extending 7 to 10 miles above
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the earth. Vital to life on earth, the troposphere contains clouds and moisture that reach earth as rain or snow.
U.
UPWELLING REGION: The area adjacent to a continent where nutrient-rich bottom waters are brought to the surface where they can be used by organisms
at the bottoms of food chains.
ULTRAVIOLET: The invisible part of range of the spectrum just beyond the violet. The visible spectrum from violet to red comprises only a small part
of the whole range of wavelengths radiated by a source such as the sun. The
spectrum goes on into the ultraviolet in one direction and into the infrared in
the other.
V.
VAPOR: The gaseous phase of substances that usually are liquid or solid at
atmospheric temperature and pressure; for example, steam and phenolic compounds.
VAPORIZATION: The change of a substance from the liquid to the gaseous state.
One of three basic factors that contribute to air pollution; the others are
attrition and combustion.
VOLCANISM: The phenomena associated with volcanoes and volcanic activity.
W.
WASTE: ( 1) Bulky waste: an item whose large size precludes or
complicates handling by normal collecting, processing, or disposal methods. (2)
Construction and demolition waste: building materials and rubble from
construction, remodeling, repair, and demolition operations. (3) Hazardous
waste: waste that requires special handling to avoid illness or injury to
persons or damage to property. (4) Special waste: waste that requires extraordinary management. (5)
Wood pulp waste: wood or paper fiber residue from manufacturing
processes. (6) Yard waste: plant clippings, pruning, and other discarded material from yards
and gardens; also known as yard rubbish. See solid waste.
WATER POLLUTION: The addition of sewage, industrial waste, or other harmful
or objectionable material to water in sufficient quantities to measurably degrade water quality.
WATERSHED: The area drained by a stream.
WATER TABLE: The upper level of groundwater.
WETLAND: An area that is regularly wet or flooded, and where the water table
stands at or above the land surface for at least part of the year.
Z.
ZOOPLANKTON: Planktonic animals that supply food for fish.
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*U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1979-0-300-842