228. Preservation of a threatened or endangered species involves
preservation of its habitat and the diversity that habitat entails. When
such becomes a goal of forest management, managers need information not only
on owls or small mammals, but also on the mycorrhizal fungi that form the
base of the food web. Removal of ectomycorrhizal tree hosts removes
the energy source of ectomycorrhizal fungi that will not fruit without their
host plants (Amaranthus, Trappe and Bednar, 1994).
229. Certainly our knowledge of biological processes and their interactions
within forest is incomplete, and we know too little about the cumulative
effect of a wide range of stresses on the ecosystem. But integrative
research at the ecosystem level shows clearly that the many processes operating
within forest inter- connect in important ways. Further, diversity
of microscopic and macroscopic plant and animal species is a key factor in
maintaining these processes (Maser, Tarrant, Trappe and Franklin, 1988, pg1-par2).
230. Maser et al. (1979) reported that 178 vertebrates use logs in
the Blue Mountains 14 amphibians and reptiles, 115 birds, and 49 mammals;
they tabulated use by log decay classes for each species. Logs are considered
important in early successional stages as well as in old- growth forests.
The persistence of large logs has special importance in providing wildlife
with habitat continuity over long periods and through major disturbances
(Franklin, Cromack, Kermit, et al. others, 1981).
231. Logging is removing present and future habitat for a variety of
invertebrate species, which would have existed shortly after tree falling
(Samuelsson et al. 1994) (Voller and Harrison, 1998). Logging is removing
present and future sources of food, nesting and broading sites for a variety
of invertebrate species. Logging is removing present and future protection
from predators and environmental extremes for a variety of invertebrate species.
Logging is removing a present and future source of construction material
and overwintering and hibernating sites for a variety of invertebrate species
(Samuelsson et al. 1994) (Voller and Harrison, 1998).
232. Logging removes present and future storehouses for moisture, which
would be providing moisture for plants and animals during dry times such
as summer so called drought (Page-Dumroese, Harvey, Jurgensen and Graham,
1991).
233. Logging removes materials that play numerous roles in providing
habitat for organisms in ecosystems (Voller and Harrison, 1998).
234. Logging removes material many invertebrates use or require over
time. Many invertebrates use or require particular species of CWD, and different
communities of invertebrates occupy and use different decay stages of CWD
(Harmon al. 1986; Samuelsson et al. 1994) (Voller and Harrison, 1998).
235. Logging removes a food source for insectivorous species such as
woodpeckers, small mammals, and bears, which forage on insects dwelling in
CWD (Maser et al. 1979; Maser and Trappe 1984; Samuelsson et al. 1994) (Tables
7.3 Id 7.4) (Voller and Harrison, 1998).
236. Logging removes and depletes materials that would provide thermal
and security covers for a variety of small mammals. Studies in British
Columbia (Voller and Harrison, 1998).
237. Logging reduces forest floor diversity, which is partly maintained
by windthrown trees that create a pit-and-mound topography as they are uprooted
(Maser, Tarrant, Trappe and Franklin, 1988, pg34-par2).
238. Logging removes materials that would otherwise contribute to system
health through ecological stages for more than 400 years at which time would
become fully incorporated into the forest floor where contributions still
would continue in the horizons. They therefore would have interacted
with the plants and animals of the forest floor and soil over a long period
of forest and plant successional history (Maser, Tarrant, Trappe and Franklin,
1988 pg9-par6).
239. Logging is removing what provides two or three greatest resources
for animal species in a forest (Maser and Trappe, 1984, pg1-intro).
239. Logging is greatly gravely impoverishing the whole system of perhaps
more than a fifth of its fauna (Maser and Trappe, 1984, pg1-par1).
240. Logging is removing present and future structural components of
great importance for forest dynamics and forest biodiversity (Kruys and Jonsson,
1999).
241. Logging is removing present and future important links in cycling
of nutrients in ecosystems (Kruys and Jonsson, 1999).
242. Logging is removing present and future needs of plants, fungi
and animals. Many species of plants, fungi and animals are dependent
on symplastless trees for nutrients, essential elements, habitat or substrate
and nesting (Kruys and Jonsson, 1999).
243. Logging is removing present and future erosion reducing material,
which would have formed in many, cases "a barrier to creeping and raveling
soils.” (Maser and Trappe, 1984,pg4 -par2)
244. Logging is removing present and future materials that would reduce
loss soil, nutrients and essential elements from the site (Maser and Trappe,
1984, pg4 -par2).
245. Logging is removing present and future sites that would have been
excellent for the establishment and growth of vegetation, including tree
seedlings. Vegetation would have become established on and helped stabilize
this "new soil", and as invertebrates and small vertebrates began to burrow into
the new soil, they not only would have nutritionally enriched it with
their feces and urine but also constantly mixed it by their burrowing activities
(Maser and Trappe, 1984 pg 4-par2).
246. Logging is removing present and future sites where many organisms
such as plant roots, mites, collembolans, amphibians, and small mammals do
await the creations of the inner space so they can enter. They await
the decomposition of logs (Maser and Trappe, 1984, pg12-par1).
247. Logging stops the processes, which would take place between a
fallen tree and its surroundings, which would have increased, as decomposition
would have continued. E.g., the flow of plant and animal populations,
air, water, and essential elements. (Maser and Trappe, 1984, pg 12).
Logging kills this system processes by means of disruption and depletion
causing dysfunction.
248. Logging is removing material, which would otherwise serve as a
key role in erosion control and animal activity (Page-Dumroese, Harvey, Jurgensen
and Graham, 1991).
249. Logging is removing present and future material that besides nitrogen
would have provided other essential elements such as Calcium, Magnesium,
Potassium, and Phosphorus when plants need it. Other essential elements
also play key roles in soil, fauna and floral health. (Page-Dumroese,
Harvey, Jurgensen and Graham, 1991).
250. Logging is removing present and future functions of the system
ranging from soil protection to wildlife and microbial habitat. The management
of coarse woody debris is critical for maintaining functioning ecosystems
(Graham, Harvey, Jurgensen, Jain, Tonn and Page-Dumroese, 1994).
251. Logging is removing present and future potential materials to
hold moisture and in turn, would have had an affect on its own internal processes
and therefore the succession of plants and animals. In addition, the orientation
of a fallen tree to aspect and compass direction and the amount and duration
of sunlight it receives, drastically affect its internal processes and biotic
community (Maser and Trappe, 1984 pg 4-par3).
252. Logging is removing a present and future source of food for various
mites, insects, slugs, and snails, which feed on higher plants that become
established on so called rotten wood.
253. Logging is removing present and future cover, which the latter
also would have provided for animals. Lichens, mosses, and liverworts
also colonize fallen trees in decay class IV. Wood-boring beetles,
termites, and carpenter ants produce channels in heartwood (heartwood forming
trees) that provide passageways for roots. The fruiting bodies of the
mycorrhizal fungi, produced from energy supplied by the host plant, can also
be a major source of food for insects, arthropods, and small mammals such
as the California red-backed vole (Maser and Trappe, 1984, pg 29-par 4).
254. Logging is removing present and future habitat for internal communities.
One example is certain species of salamander. As the bark becomes loose
on a late class II fallen tree, lungless salamanders (Family Plethodontidae)
join the internal community. Three species of salamanders are associated,
as predators, with so-called rotten wood in western Oregon: Oregon slender
salamander, Oregon salamander, and clouded salamander (Maser and Trappe,
1984, pg 33-par1).
255. Logging is removing present and future decayed heartwood (processes
as well as product), i.e., of heartwood forming tree species, which would
have split into chunks; where as roots would have grown down the resulting
cracks as well as along insect channels. Thus, logging is removing
present and future shelter, which invertebrates – from minute mites to centipedes,
millipedes, slugs, and snails – would have found in these openings and passages
along them. Logging is removing present and future cover which vertebrates
such as salamanders, shrews, shrew moles, and voles, would have found under
debris of sloughed bark and so called rotten wood alongside the class IV
tree; they also would have found the so called rotten wood on the underside
of the tree crumbly enough for digging tunnels or burrows. Logging
is removing present and future materials that fungi and other microorganisms
would have as well as on the new substrates offered by the feces of animals
(Maser and Trappe, 1984, pg 17-par 4). (The bottom is processes of a highly
ordered system are being removed by depletion.)
256. Logging is removing present and future wood which colonization
of decomposing wood by animals would have helped microbes to enter interior
surfaces of the wood and created additional openings for entry of water and
essential elements; and penetration of the wood by roots of trees, such as
western hemlock, would have facilitated entry by mycorrhizal fungi (Maser
and Trappe, 1984, pg 18-par5).
257. Logging is removing present and future materials and sites, which
enhance the life of animals. One salamander, the clouded salamander,
frequents so-called rotten wood, particularly Douglas fir in late classes
II through IV. These salamanders are often found under the loose bark
of large fallen trees in spaces excavated by, wood-eating insects.
In fact, young clouded salamanders show a striking affinity for bark (McKenzie
and Storm 1970). It has been found twenty feet up in standing trees
(Maser and Trappe, 1984, pg 34-par5). Eastern Hemlock is similar in wood type to
Douglas fir.
258. Logging is removing present and future, large, so called rotten
fallen trees. These trees would have played key roles in animal life
styles over time. In the Northwest it is documented that the final
level of predation within large so called rotten, fallen Douglas Firs in
class III through V is probably that of small mammals, such as shrews and
shrew moles (Maser and Trappe, 1984, pg17).
259. Logging is removing present and future grocery for certain animals
such as shrews. E.g., Shrews are small, with short legs, tiny eyes,
and long, pointed noses. Although they cannot see well, their senses of touch,
smell, and hearing are acute. The common shrew in western Oregon Douglas-fir
forests is the Trowbridge shrew. This small, “nervous” mammal is abundant
around fallen trees, particularly classes III and IV, that are well settled
on the forest floor and have been in place long enough to act as shrew’s
grocery. The Trowbridge shrew has the most catholic diet of western
Oregon shrews. It eats at least 47 types of food, the most important
of which are centipedes, spiders, internal organs of invertebrates (probably
mostly beetles), slugs and snails. In addition, it shows a definite
affinity for fallen trees, as does some of their prey. The shrew mole
is ideally equipped to forage in and around fallen trees because its nose
is extremely sensitive to touch, it is much like a blind man’s cane.
In almost constant motion, it quickly identifies any object it contacts.
Further, this mole’s size, adaptions for digging, and herculean strength
make it an efficient, burrowing predator within and beneath so called rotten
wood (Maser and Trappe, 1984, pg 35-par 3-6).
260. Logging is removing present and future habitat as well as niche
for fungi and its fruiting bodies. This would have impact on fungi
feeders, E.g., California red-backed voles to black tailed deer, may obtain
some of their protein nitrogen from decaying trees by feeding on fungal fruiting
bodies, such as what some call truffles and mushrooms (Maser and Trappe,
1984, pg 36-par 3).
261. Logging is removing a present and future gradually changing myriad
of internal and external habitats. E.g., as a fallen tree decomposes,
it creates a gradually changing myriad of internal and external habitats.
Plant and animal communities within a fallen tree are very different from
those outside, but both progress through a series of orderly changes. As
a fallen tree decomposes, its internal structure becomes simpler, whereas
the structure of the plant community surrounding the fallen tree becomes
more complex (Maser and Trappe, 1984, pg 36-par7).
262. Logging is removing the present and future manner which a fallen
tree comes to rest on the forest floor which would have greatly influenced
subsequent diversity of both external and internal plant and animal habitats
(Maser, Tarrant, Trappe and Franklin, 1988, pg41-par4).
263. Logging is removing a present and future spectrum of habitats
over many decades’ even centuries (Maser, Tarrant, Trappe and Franklin, 1988,
pg41-par4).
264. Logging is removing present and future material that would have
provided diversity within a given successional stage and formed a physical-chemical
link through the many successional stages of a forest (Maser, Tarrant, Trappe
and Franklin, 1988, pg41-par4).
265. Logging is removing present and future flow of plant and animal
populations, air, water, and essential elements between a fallen tree and
its surroundings, which would have increased as decomposition continued.
A fallen tree interacts with its environment through internal surface areas.
A newly fallen tree is not yet a habitat for plants or most animals. But
once organisms gain entrance to the interior they consume and break down
wood cells and fibers. Larger organisms – mites, collembolans, spiders, millipedes,
centipedes, amphibians, and small mammals must await the creation of internal
spaces before they can enter (Maser, Tarrant, Trappe and Franklin,
1988, pg42-par2).
266. Logging is removing present and future material that would have
contributed to long-term accumulation of soil organic matter, partly because
the carbon constituents of well-decayed wood are 80-90 percent residual lignin
and humus (Maser, Tarrant, Trappe and Franklin, 1988, pg44-par3). Logging is removing
present and future materials on dry sites in the soil, which the establishment
of conifer seedlings and mycorrhizal fungi are positively correlated
(Maser, Tarrant, Trappe and Franklin, 1988, pg44-par3). Logging is removing present
and future materials that would have also created and maintained diversity
in forest communities. (Maser, Tarrant, Trappe and Franklin, 1988, pg44-par3).
Soil properties of pits and mounds differ from those of surrounding soil;
such chemical and topographic diversity in turn affects forest regeneration
processes. All this, especially large fallen trees that reside on the
forest floor for long periods, add to spatial, chemical, and biotic diversity
of forest soils, and to the processes that maintain long-term forest productivity
(Maser, Tarrant, Trappe, and Franklin, 1988, pg44-par3).
267. Logging is removing present and future large trees that when fallen,
could be oriented along the contour of a slope. The upslope side would be
filled with humus and inorganic material, which would have allowed invertebrates
and small vertebrates to tunnel alongside. The down slope side would have
provided protective cover for larger vertebrates. When under a closed
canopy, such trees, at some point, would have also been saturated with water
and act as a reservoir during the dry part of the year (Maser, Tarrant, Trappe
and Franklin, 1988, pg45-fig2.9).
268. Logging is removing present and future essential habitat for a
variety of invertebrates and vertebrates (Franklin, Cromack, Kermit, et al.
others, 1981).
Logging is removing present and future sites used for lookouts, feeding and
reproduction, protection and cover, sources and storage of food, and bedding
(Franklin, Cromack, Kermit, et al. others, 1981).
269. Logging is removing present and future logs, which the moisture
content would have made them particularly important as habitat for amphibians
(Franklin, Cromack, Kermit, et al. others, 1981).
270. Logging is removing present and future logs, which may have contributed
significantly to the reestablishment of animal populations by providing pathways
along which small mammals could have ventured into clearcuts and other bare
areas. This also has relevance to the reestablishment of tree seedlings on
bared areas since survival and growth of new trees depend on development
of appropriate mycorrhizal associations. Surprisingly, fungal symbionts apparently
disappear from cutover areas shortly after their host trees are removed (Harvey
et al. 1978a), and the sites must be reinoculated with their spores. Many
mycosymbionts have underground fruiting bodies and completely depend on animals
for dissemination of spores. Small mammals are the vectors. They consume
the fungus and carry spores to new areas, thereby inoculating tree seedlings
(Maser et al. 1978a, 1978b; Trappe and Maser 1978) (Franklin, Cromack, Kermit,
et al. others, 1981).
271. Logging is removing present and future sound CWD, which would
have provided secure travel corridors for small mammals (Maser et al. 1979;
Maser and Trappe 1984; Carter 1993), and provided subnivean habitat during
winter. The value of this habitat is positively correlated with piece
size (Maser and Trappe 1984; Hayes and Cross 1987; Carter 1993). Nordyke
and Buskirk (1991) found that southern red-backed vole abundance was positively
correlated with the decay stage of logs in the central Rocky Mountains. Maser
and Trappe, 1984) and Rhoades (1986) reported associations of small mammals
with CWD because of the food source provided by the fungal fruiting bodies
growing in and on the CWD (Voller and Harrison, 1998).
272. Logging is removing present and future debris used by martens
and weasels. Gyug (1993) reported that fur-bearers (martens and weasels)
used clearcuts with logging debris more than those with no CWD; however,
the level of use was much less than that of the adjacent forest (Voller and
Harrison, 1998).
273. Logging is removing present and future material valuable to mustelids
(particularly martens, weasels, and fishers), which is well documented (Baker
1992; Corn and Raphael 1992; Lofroth 1993; Buskirk and Powell 1994; Buskirk
and Ruggiero 1994; and others) (Voller and Harrison, 1998).
274. Logging is removing present and future materials which martens
would have selected for habitats partly on the basis of thermal microhabitats
(Taylor 1993), such as those provided by CWD (Lofroth 1993; Buskirk and Powell
1994; Buskirk and Ruggiero 1994). Corn and Raphael (1992) reported
that martens selected subnivean access points that had greater volumes of
CWD, more layering of logs, more sound and moderately decayed logs, and fewer
highly decayed logs than random sites (Voller and Harrison, 1998).
275. NOTE page 200 – 201 has charts on animals known now to be associated
with CWD (Voller and Harrison, 1998).
276. Logging is removing present and future material that would have
benefited salamander populations. Aubry et al. (1988) found that some
species of salamander were most abundant around CWD. Dupuis (1993) concluded
that salamander populations in logged areas were limited by available moist
microhabitats, primarily because of a lack of large logs in intermediate
and advanced stages of decay (Voller and Harrison, 1998).
277. Logging is removing present and future sites that Salamanders
would have used or need for reproduction sites, as foraging sites, and for
cover, and also laying their eggs in them (Table 7.5 pg202) (Samuelsson et
al. 1994) (Voller and Harrison, 1998).
278. Logging is removing what would be, at some point, a source of
water during dry time, and food during wet times. E.g., food, during
winter months, inside certain stages, for insectivorous species for starters.
279. Conclusion: The capacity and ability, of CWD, to function
as habitat, foraging sites, protection, reproduction sites, moist microhabitats,
thermal microhabitats, secure travel corridors, lookouts, feeding site, sources
and storage of food, bedding over many decades even centuries and a physical-chemical
link through the many successional stages of a forest too often goes unobserved
such as in this Painter Run Windthrow Salvage Project?
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