389. Public perception as messy logging that wastes wood has
influenced CWD management. This has led to a policy of 'zero waste
tolerance.' The importance of CWD in stream ecosystems and the role
of snags are more widely accepted. Management requires increased understanding
of its importance in the forest management arena, the environmental community,
and the general public (Voller and Harrison, 1998).
390. Future forests will contain much less coarse woody debris (CWD),
and that debris will be smaller and of different quality than that seen today.
We have the technology to remove most coarse woody debris from the forest;
in fact, current wood utilization standards encourage such removal.
Moreover, converting natural forests to intensively manipulated stands reduces
tree life spans from centuries to decades; future trees will be much smaller
than they are today, and wood quality will undoubtedly be different from
that of today’s forest (Maser, Tarrant, Trappe and Franklin, 1988,
pg25-par3).
391. Forest floor diversity is partly maintained by windthrown trees
that create a pit-and-mound topography as they are uprooted (Maser, Tarrant,
Trappe and Franklin, 1988. pg34-par2).
392. NOTE Class system chart is on Page 32 (Maser, Tarrant, Trappe
and Franklin, 1988).
393. Certainly our knowledge of biological processes and their interactions
within forest is incomplete, and we know too little about the cumulative
effect of a wide range of stresses on the ecosystem. But integrative, research
at the ecosystem level shows clearly that the many processes operating within
forest interconnect in important ways. Further, diversity of microscopic
and macroscopic plant and animal species is a key factor in maintaining these
processes (Maser, Tarrant, Trappe and Franklin, 1988, pg1-par2).
394. With the latter information known, we need to know more about
the fallen trees contribution to the forest as a whole and to the quality
of the soil in particular (Maser and Trappe, 1984, pag1-par2).
395. Managers, of once fertile forest, need to know how the system
will benefit from fallen trees over the long run (Maser and Trappe, 1984,
pg1-par2).
396. The physical qualities of a fallen tree – moisture, temperature,
essential element content, and pH -- are likely to change markedly
with so called but poorly defined “stand removals, regeneration, reforestation
and so called regrowth” (Maser and Trappe, 1984, pg49-par1).
Note, especially when they are removed.
397. Recent and current research in Old-growth forest is revealing
much about the roles and qualities of fallen trees. Understanding this
information may allow use of fallen trees as sensitive barometers of “habitat
health” of a system (Maser and Trappe, 1984,pg49-par1).
398. Large, fallen trees are unique, critical, dynamic components of
forests (Maser and Trappe, 1984, pg1-par2).
399. Up to a century ago western stream systems also characteristically
contained abundant pieces and aggregations of large, woody debris, but that
debris has been systematically removed to improve navigation, flood control,
and drainage. We now have the technological capability to remove more and
more woody debris from the forest floor. Conversion of forests from virgin
to managed status reduces rotation ages from centuries to decades with a
consequent reduction in average size of trees and change in wood quality
(Maser and Trappe, 1984, pg1-par4).
400. Coarse woody debris can be incorporated into the surface soil
horizon as freezing and thawing cycles move CWD into the soil. Additionally,
CWD can be covered as soil moves downhill. Depending on the forest type,
large amounts can be left in the form of decaying tree roots. All of these
materials, in the advanced stages of decay, can be active parts of the soil
system as soil wood. (Carbon Based Cellulose) Because CWD is an important
component of a functioning ecosystem, a portion of this material must be
maintained. As the demand for forest products and the ability to utilize
more fiber increases, less material is being left after timber harvesting
or after salvage operations. These operations, in combination with past practices
of slash disposal and site preparation, have reduced organic material in
the forest floor, making CWD management critical (Harvey and others 1987).
Consequently, recommendations for maintaining CWD for different ecosystems
and forest types are needed (Graham, Harvey, Jurgensen, Jain, Tonn and Page-Dumroese,
1994).
401. Obviously, not all of the organic matter in the forest floor is
derived from CWD; some is derived from foliage, fine woody material, or other
organic components. Harmon and others (1986) summarized the few studies showing
the contribution to the forest floor and found it to range from 24 to 74
percent. Our past work showed that CWD contributed up to 58 percent of the
organic materials to the forest floor; in this study CWD contributed up to
100 percent of the organic materials. Because of this variation, the range
of 25 to 50 percent seemed suitable and conservative for the sites we sampled
in the Rocky Mountains (Graham, Harvey, Jurgensen, Jain, Tonn and Page-Dumroese,
1994). Question: What percentage of organic matter is added by CWD
in old growth areas in the ANF? What bio-indicator was used to determine
the amount of CWD needed for the functionality of the systems parts and processes
with respect to soil, fauna and flora survival?
402. Ectomycorrhizae absorb moisture and essential elements, and translocate
them to their host plants, making ectomycorrhizae essential for the development
of such ecosystems (Harley and Smith 1983; Harvey and others 1979; Harvey
and others 1987; Marks and Kozlowski 1973; Maser 1990). Therefore, we assume
their presence and abundance to be a good indicator of a healthy, functioning
forest soil. Ectomycorrhizae have a strong positive relationship with soil
organic materials (Harvey and others 1981). Soil wood, humus, and the upper
layers of mineral soil that are rich in organic matter are the primary substrates
for the development of ectomycorrhizae. (Graham, Harvey, Jurgensen, Jain,
Tonn and Page-Dumroese, 1994).
403. Further more, woody debris is one of the slowest components
of the ecosystem to recover after disturbance. Therefore, short intervals
between timber harvests can reduce ecosystem carbon storage in coarse woody
debris even when the living portion of the ecosystem has recovered. Conversely,
allowing debris to accumulate would result in more carbon, being stored in
the ecosystem than has been predicted by current projections, which assume
that a steady state is reached in less than 100 years (Harmon and Hua, 1991).
404. Past efforts at estimating global detrital storage (including
duff, coarse woody debris, and soil organic matter) have assumed that only
a small fraction of carbon is stored in coarse woody debris. This assumption,
at least for old-growth forests, is a mistake. Given the tack of data on
the mass of coarse woody debris in various biomes, global carbon storage
in woody debris cannot yet be directly estimated (Harmon and Hua, 1991).
405. Studies of a forest containing Fagus – Betula in New England have
29% of the total detritus in coarse woody debris. A forest containing trees
of the Quercus species has been noted to have 9%. More than half the total
detritus (54%) at Andrews is Coarse Woody Debris (Harmon and Hua, 1991).
406. Models of forest recovery that exclude symplastless wood do not
account for the substantial amount of carbon that is being absorbed by recovering
forest in the later stages of succession. (Harmon and Hua, 1991).
407. Preservation of a threatened or endangered species involves preservation
of its habitat and the diversity that habitat entails. When such becomes
a goal of forest management, managers need information not only on owls or
small mammals, but also on the mycorrhizal fungi that form the base of the
food web. Removal of ectomycorrhizal tree hosts removes the energy
source of ectomycorrhizal fungi, which will not fruit without their host
plants (Amaranthus, Trappe and Bednar, 1994).
408. Fungal diversity has usually been overlooked in considerations
of the management of forest. The more obvious plants and animals attract
the attention of the casual observer, but foresters and ecologists need to
recognize that the health of the forest depends on organisms and processes
below ground (Amaranthus, Trappe and Bednar, 1994).
409. Data shows leaving materials behind with soil contact is what
is needed for once fertile forest health and not removal of such (Amaranthus,
Trappe and Bednar, 1994).
410. NATIONAL WOOD FIBER NEEDS indicate substantial increases in demand
for wood fiber - based products. This demand has resulted in increased efforts
to remove all available fiber at harvesting sites. Intensive fiber removal
or intense wildfire potentially reduces the parent materials (duff and wood
residues) available for the production of organic reserves in forest soils.
This reserve, primarily in the form of humus, decayed wood, and charcoal,
has been shown critical to the support of both nonsymbiotic nitrogen fixing
and ectomycorrhizal activities in forest soils of western Montana.
Harvest and fire-caused reductions of organic materials on and in northern
forest soils have been linked to reforestation problems. This study was undertaken
to provide a preliminary estimate of the impact of varying amounts and kinds
of soil organic matter on ectomycorrhizal development in mature western Montana
forests (Harvey, Jurgensen and Larsen, 1981).
411. Both season and site affect the relation between the number of
active ectomycorrhizae and soil organic matter in these ecosystems. In the
dry season or on the drier site, the high soil organic matter content yielded
larger numbers of active ectomycorrhizae than did the low organic matter
conditions. Forest management decisions with potential to disturb soils and
reduce woody residues, particularly in dry Northern Rocky Mountain habitat
types, should take into consideration the importance of soil organic reserves
and their affects on ectomycorrhizae as a factor in forest soil quality.
A consistent effort should be made to retain a moderate quantity of large
woody materials. Preliminary estimates indicate that approximately 25-37
tons/hectare (Harvey, Jurgensen and Larsen, 1981).
412. Evidence that soil organic reserves, particularly wood, play
important roles in maintaining forest site quality emphasizes the need to
properly manage woody materials. Thus, the viewpoint that woody residue
represents only waste or a fire hazard must be reassessed. Forest users and
managers must recognize the benefits, equivalent to long-term fertilization that
woody and other organic reserves contribute to an ecosystem. (Maser and Trappe,
1984, pg1-par3).
413. Woody debris is generally removed from streams or forests in the
name of economic progress, but what are the short-term and long-term biological
consequences? (Maser and Trappe, 1984, pg1-par5)
414. How is habitat diversity affected, and what is the impact on long-term
site productivity? (Maser and Trappe, 1984, pg1-par5)
415. Forests of the future will have far less woody material contributed
to the forest floor than forests of the past, and that material will differ
in size and quality from the woody debris that has been historically prominent
in forest habitats (Maser and Trappe, 1984, pg1-par4).
416. Large, fallen trees in various stages of decay contribute much-needed
diversity to terrestrial and aquatic habitats in western forests. When most
biological activity in soil is limited by low moisture availability in summer,
the fallen tree-soil interface offers a relatively cool, moist habitat for
animals and a substrate for microbial and root activity. Intensified utilization
and management can deprive future forests of large, fallen trees. The impact
of this loss on habitat diversity and on long-term forest productivity must
be determined because management need sound information on which to base
resource management decisions (Maser and Trappe, 1984, Abstract-par2).
417. Decaying trees comprise considerable accumulations of mass, nutrients
and elements in unmanaged, old-growth forest. Some of the largest accumulations
occur in the unmanaged forest of the Pacific Northwest. Coarse woody debris
can range from 130 to 276 tons per acre in stands from 100 to more than 1,000
years old. Although here we are concerned with Douglas fir, neither decaying
wood nor research data are unique to forests of the Pacific Northwest. McFee
and Stone (1966) Observed that decaying wood persisted for more than 100
years in New York and others pointed out that substantial accumulations in
old-growth forest in Poland. These observations evidence the long-term
continuity of decaying trees as structural components in forest (Maser and
Trappe, 1984, pg 16-par1).
418. Please note that other recommendations are provided with respect
to streams, water, oceans, wetlands, etc. in several docs, one being (Maser,
Tarrant, Trappe and Franklin, 1988).
419. Something to think about: Thinning stands, in many cases,
leaves areas which contained white pine to prey of the most aggressive killing
diseases on the continent, including seedling diseases as destructive as
Cylindrocladium blight and virulent forms of damping-off, the notorious white
pine blister rust, shoestring root rot, and the ruinous annosus root rot.
Page 353
Reference: Hepting, George, H. July 1971
Disease of Forest and Shade Trees of The United States
US. Dept. Agric. Forest Service Handbook Number 386 658
420. Conclusion: What parts and processes of this once fertile forest
were knowingly sacrificed to the mere interest of production of board foot
and or lumber degrade factors?
What were the tools, indicators, used to understand these parts and processes?
What was the major factor to determine one to be sacrificed?
In summation, we must not sacrifice the options of future generations on
the altar of cost-effectiveness through decisions based on insufficient data.
It is the professional charge of researchers to obtain the needed data and
of managers to apply it (Maser and Trappe, 1984, pg49-par3).
They claim to foster concepts of tree biology in old growth areas.
Does this mean they claim to have no responsibility to flora and fauna here
in this Painter Run Windthrow Salvage Project?
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